About · Reference · 3 min
Sources
The books and papers behind the mathematics and the history.
Short answer
ProbabilitymathProbabilityChance of an outcome, from 0 to 1 or 0% to 100%. One number: 1/37 = 2.70%.Read full → and gambling mathematics follow Ethier and Epstein; the chi-square testlabChi-square testStatistical test comparing observed hits per pocket with the expected n/37. Used to judge whether a wheel is biased.Read full → follows Pearson; history follows contemporary accounts and standard references. Figures on live-studio operation are from published operator and regulator documentation.
mathematics
Ethier 2010 · Epstein 2013
statistics
Pearson 1900
history
Lablée 1801 · Barnhart 1983
Mathematics and statistics
- Ethier, S. N. (2010). The Doctrine of Chances: Probabilistic Aspects of Gambling. Springer.
- Epstein, R. A. (2013). The Theory of Gambling and Statistical Logic, 2nd ed. Academic Press.
- Pearson, K. (1900). On the criterion that a given system of deviations from the probable… Philosophical Magazine 50(302).
- Thorp, E. O. (1969). Optimal gambling systems for favorable games. Review of the International Statistical Institute 37(3).
- Bollman, M. (2021). Mathematics of the Big Four Casino Table Games: Blackjack, Baccarat, Craps, & Roulette. CRC Press.
Physics and advantage play
- Bass, T. A. (1985). The Eudaemonic Pie. Houghton Mifflin.
- Small, M. & Tse, C. K. (2012). Predicting the outcome of roulette. Chaos 22(3).
History
- Lablée, J. (1801). La Roulette, ou le Jour.
- Barnhart, R. T. (1983). Beating the Wheel. Lyle Stuart.
- Wykes, A. (1964). The Complete Illustrated Guide to Gambling. Doubleday.
Live roulette operation
Public technical standards from the UK Gambling Commission and Malta Gaming Authority on live-dealer games and random number generation; manufacturer specifications for professional wheels.
reviewed 2026-09-28model: European, single zeromethodology ↗sources ↗